Displacing Indigenous People
Introduction and Sources
– European settlements in South America, Central America, North America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand led to the displacement of native peoples.
– Colonies established by European immigrants eventually became independent states or countries.
– Migration from Asian countries also contributed to the demographic makeup of these countries.
– The majority of the population in these countries today consists of Europeans and Asians, with native inhabitants being a small minority.
– Native peoples and their history were neglected in earlier American and Australian textbooks, but anthropologists began studying them in the 1840s.
– From the 1960s, native peoples were encouraged to write their own histories through oral history.
– Native histories, fiction, and art are now available and showcased in museums, with some museums curated by the native peoples themselves, such as the National Museum of the American Indian in the USA.
European Imperialism
– After the seventeenth century, countries like France, Holland, and England began expanding their trading activities and establishing colonies in America, Africa, and Asia.
– The American empires of Spain and Portugal did not expand further during this time.
– In South Asia, trading companies like the East India Company became political powers, annexing territories, maintaining existing administrative systems, and collecting taxes.
– Europeans initially traded along the African coast, but later ventured into the interior after the late nineteenth century.
– European countries divided Africa among themselves as colonies.
– The term “settler” refers to the Dutch in South Africa, the British in Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, and Europeans in America.
– English became the official language in these colonies, with the exception of Canada, where French is also an official language.
NORTH AMERICA
– North America stretches from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer, between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
– It includes geographical features such as the Rocky Mountains, Arizona and Nevada deserts, Sierra Nevada mountains, Great Plains, Great Lakes, Mississippi and Ohio valleys, Appalachian Mountains, and borders Mexico.
– Canada has a significant forest cover, while the USA and Canada have abundant reserves of oil, gas, and minerals, supporting major industries.
– Present-day agriculture in the region focuses on wheat, corn, fruit, and fishing is prominent in Canada.
– The development of mining, industry, and extensive agriculture is relatively recent, mainly driven by European, African, and Chinese immigrants.
– Native people had inhabited North America for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans.
The Native Peoples
– The earliest inhabitants of North America migrated from Asia over 30,000 years ago via a land-bridge across the Bering Straits.
– During the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago, they moved further south.
– The oldest discovered artifact in America, an arrow-point, dates back 11,000 years.
– Population growth increased around 5,000 years ago when the climate stabilized.
– Native peoples lived in bands and villages along river valleys, relying on fishing, hunting, and agriculture.
– Bison (wild buffalo) hunting was significant, and the introduction of horses from Spanish settlers in the seventeenth century facilitated their journeys.
– They practiced sustainable hunting, only taking what was necessary for food.
– Unlike Central and South America, they did not develop kingdoms or empires due to the absence of extensive agriculture and surplus production.
– Land ownership was not a major concern, and formal alliances, friendships, and gift exchanges were important aspects of their culture.
– North America was home to diverse languages, primarily oral, and they held cyclical views of time and maintained oral traditions of their origins and history.
– Native peoples were skilled craftspeople, creating beautiful textiles, and possessed deep knowledge of the land and its various landscapes.
Encounters with Europeans
– European traders arriving on the north coast of North America in the seventeenth century found friendly and welcoming native peoples.
– Unlike the Spanish in South America, these traders sought to trade in fish and furs rather than gold.
– Native peoples in the region were skilled hunters and provided assistance in hunting.
– Along the Mississippi River, the French encountered regular gatherings where tribes exchanged unique handicrafts and food items.
– Europeans traded blankets, iron vessels, guns, and alcohol in exchange for local products.
– The introduction of alcohol to the natives led to addiction and allowed Europeans to exert control over trade.
– Europeans, in turn, developed an addiction to tobacco obtained from the natives.
Mutual Perceptions
– European traders in North America found the native people friendly and helpful in trading fish and furs.
– Europeans considered literacy, organized religion, and urbanism as markers of civilization.
– Some Europeans admired the native people as “noble savages” untouched by the corruptions of civilization.
– Native Americans saw the European goods as gifts, while Europeans viewed them as commodities for profit.
– Europeans gradually settled in America, clearing forests for farms, which differed from the natives’ relationship with the land.
– The formation of Canada and the United States involved acquiring land through purchase and war, without considering native consent.
– The landscapes of America changed as Europeans developed agriculture, brought slaves from Africa, and hunted animals to protect their farms.
– The abolition of slavery in the USA followed a civil war, and civil liberties for African Americans were achieved in the 20th century.
– Canada faced political challenges in accommodating the demands of French settlers, eventually resolving them through confederation in 1867.
The Native Peoples Lose their Land
– Native Americans in the USA were induced or forced to move as settlement expanded, often through unfair treaties and low payments.
– The Cherokee tribe, despite efforts to assimilate, were denied citizenship rights and forcibly removed from their land by President Andrew Jackson.
– European settlers justified taking native land by criticizing their perceived lack of productivity, language skills, and clothing.
– Natives were pushed westward, faced further displacement if valuable resources were found, and were confined to reservations.
– Rebellions and armed revolts were crushed by the US army, leading to eventual submission by the natives.
The Gold Rush, and the Growth of Industries
– The discovery of gold in California in the 1840s sparked the “Gold Rush” and attracted European immigrants hoping to find fortune.
– The construction of railway lines across North America, completed by 1870 in the USA and 1885 in Canada, was driven by the need for rapid transportation, with Chinese workers playing a significant role.
– Industrialization in North America aimed to support railway development and facilitate large-scale farming, leading to the growth of industrial towns and factories.
– By 1890, the USA had transformed into the world’s leading industrial power and expanded its agricultural lands.
– The extermination of bison disrupted the traditional hunting lifestyle of native peoples.
– By 1892, the continental expansion of the USA was complete, eliminating the “frontier” that attracted European settlers.
– The USA began establishing colonies, such as in Hawaii and the Philippines, and emerged as an imperial power.
Constitutional Rights
– The USA embraced the “democratic spirit” as a defining aspect of its identity, contrasting with monarchies and aristocracies of the Old World.
– The right to property was enshrined in the constitution and protected individual rights, but these rights initially applied only to white men.
– Thomas Paine, a champion of democracy during the American and French Revolutions, drew inspiration from Native Americans as models of societal organization.
– Native Americans, through their example, influenced the movement towards democracy in Europe, according to Daniel Paul’s argument.
The Winds of Change…
– In the 1920s, the living conditions of native peoples in the USA and Canada were poor, with limited access to healthcare and education on reservations.
– The Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934 in the USA allowed natives in reservations to purchase land and obtain loans, aiming to improve their conditions.
– In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a push to assimilate natives into European culture, but native communities resisted and advocated for the preservation of their traditions and reservations.
– In 1969, the Canadian government initially denied recognizing aboriginal rights, leading to organized opposition and protests by the native peoples.
– The resolution came in 1982 with the Constitution Act, which acknowledged the existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the natives in Canada.
– Despite population decline, native peoples have asserted their rights to their own cultures and sacred lands, achieving greater recognition and preservation of their heritage, particularly in Canada.
AUSTRALIA
– Aboriginal people arrived in Australia over 40,000 years ago, migrating from New Guinea. They consider themselves as always having been in Australia and refer to the past centuries as the “Dreamtime.”
– In the late eighteenth century, there were between 350 and 750 native communities in Australia, each with its own language. The Torres Strait Islanders are a separate indigenous group.
– Australia’s population is sparsely distributed, with coastal areas being more populated due to arid desert conditions in the central region.
– Initial reports from Captain Cook and his crew described friendly encounters with the natives, but attitudes changed after Cook’s death in Hawaii, leading to violence against indigenous peoples.
– The indigenous population suffered greatly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries due to diseases, loss of land and resources, and conflicts with settlers.
– Early European settlers in Australia were primarily convicts, who later became free settlers and displaced natives from their lands for agriculture.
– The economic development of Australia focused on sheep farms, mining stations, vineyards, and wheat farming.
– Harsh working conditions for natives and the use of cheap Chinese labor were prevalent, but later Chinese immigration was banned due to concerns about dependence on non-white labor.
– Until 1974, there were government policies aimed at restricting immigration of “non-white” people from South Asia and Southeast Asia.
The Winds of Change…
– The “Great Australian Silence” referred to the omission of Aboriginal history by historians until the 1960s.
– From the 1970s, there was a growing interest in understanding Aboriginal communities and their distinct cultures.
– Efforts were made to study native cultures, incorporate indigenous art in galleries, and expand museums to showcase indigenous culture.
– Australia adopted multiculturalism as official policy in 1974, recognizing equal respect for indigenous and immigrant cultures.
– Lack of treaties with indigenous peoples and the forced separation of mixed-race children led to public inquiries and the recognition of historic bonds with the land.
– Apologies were made for past injustices and the attempt to enforce racial segregation through forced separations.
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