The Rise of Nationalism In Europe

In this article, we will be going through Chapter 1 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe class 10 History. 

– Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of four prints in 1848 visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’.

– The first print of the series shows people from Europe and America marching in a long train and paying homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.

– The image shows the shattered remains of symbols of absolutist institutions on the earth in the foreground.

– Sorrieu groups the peoples of the world as distinct nations identified through their flags and national costumes.

– The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, followed by France, Germany, Austria, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.

– Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene, symbolising fraternity among the nations of the world.

– Nationalism emerged as a force that brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe during the 19th century.

– The result was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.

– A nation-state is one in which the majority of its citizens develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

– This chapter will look at the diverse processes through which  The Rise of Nationalism in Europe came into being in nineteenth-century Europe.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

– Nationalism emerged during the French Revolution in 1789.

– The transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to French citizens created a sense of collective identity.

– Measures like la patrie and le citoyen emphasized the notion of a united community with equal rights under a constitution.

– New symbols like the tricolour flag, hymns, oaths, and martyrs were created.

– A centralized administrative system was put in place, uniform laws and weights and measures adopted, and regional dialects discouraged.

– The French saw it as their mission to liberate Europe from despotism.

– Napoleon introduced reforms in the territories he controlled, such as simplifying administrative divisions and abolishing feudal systems.

– The Napoleonic Code(1804) established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

– Some areas initially welcomed French rule but soon turned hostile due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into French armies.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

– In the mid-18th century, Europe did not have the nation-states that we have today.

– Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons ruled by autonomous rulers.

– Central and Eastern Europe were under autocratic monarchies with diverse peoples.

– People did not share a collective identity or common culture and often spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.

– The Habsburg Empire, for example, was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples, including the Alpine regions, Bohemia, Italy, and Hungary.

– In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke various dialects.

– In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.

– The only thing binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

– The landed aristocracy was the dominant social and political class in Europe during this time.

– Members of this class had a common way of life and owned estates in the countryside as well as town-houses.

– They spoke French for diplomatic and high society purposes and their families were often connected by marriage.

– However, this aristocracy was a numerically small group, with the majority of the population being made up of peasants.

– In Western and parts of Central Europe, the growth of industrial production and trade led to the emergence of commercial classes based on production for the market.

– Industrialisation began in England in the late 1700s but occurred later in France and parts of the German states.

– This led to the emergence of new social groups, including a working-class population and a middle class made up of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.

– These new social groups were smaller in number in Central and Eastern Europe until the late 19th century.

– Ideas of national unity gained popularity among the educated, liberal middle classes following the abolition of aristocratic privileges.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

– Liberalism was closely tied to the idea of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe.

– The term “liberalism” is derived from the Latin word “liber”, meaning free.

– For the middle classes, liberalism represented individual freedom and equality before the law.

– Politically, liberalism emphasized government by consent and a constitution with representative government through parliament.

– Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the importance of private property rights.

– In revolutionary France, only property-owning men had the right to vote and hold office, while non-propertied men and women were excluded.

– The Napoleonic Code returned to limited suffrage and reduced women to a minor status.

– Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements to demand equal political rights.

– In the Economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

– Economic nationalism strengthened wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

– A customs union or Zollverein was formed in 1834 by Prussia and it abolished tariff barriers and reduce the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

– The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.

A New Conservatism after 1815

– After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments embraced conservatism, believing that traditional institutions like monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family should be preserved.

– Few conservatives realized that modernization could strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy by making state power more effective and strong. This included a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom.

– In 1815, representatives of European powers met in Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich. They drew up the Treaty of Vienna to undo most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.

– The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power, France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon, and a series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future.

– The German confederation of 39 states set up by Napoleon was left untouched, but Russia was given part of Poland, and Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. Austria was given control of northern Italy, while Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers.

– The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe.

– The conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic and did not tolerate criticism or dissent. They imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays, and songs that reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.

– The memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals, who criticized the new conservative order. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists was freedom of the press.

The Revolutionaries

– Fear of repression led liberal nationalists underground after 1815.

– Secret societies emerged in European states to train revolutionaries and spread ideas.

– Revolutionaries aimed to oppose established monarchies and fight for liberty.

– Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, was a member of the Carbonari.

– Mazzini founded Young Italy and Young Europe, underground societies with like-minded individuals from various countries.

– Mazzini believed in the unification of Italy into a single republic, forming an alliance of nations.

– Secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland following Mazzini’s model.

– Mazzini’s opposition to monarchy and vision of democratic republics worried conservatives.

– Metternich described Mazzini as the most dangerous enemy of the social order.

3. The Age of Revolutions: 1830–1848

– Liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolution as conservative regimes consolidated power in Europe.

– Revolutions occurred in regions like Italy, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland.

– Educated middle-class elites, including professors, schoolteachers, and clerks, led these revolutions.

– The July 1830 Revolution in France resulted in the overthrow of Bourbon kings and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.

– The Belgian uprising followed the July Revolution, leading to Belgium’s separation from the Netherlands.

– The Greek War of Independence in 1821 mobilized nationalist sentiments across Europe.

– Greek nationalists received support from exiled Greeks and sympathetic Western Europeans.

– Lord Byron, an English poet, supported Greece financially and fought in the war but died in 1824.

– The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

– Culture, including art, poetry, stories, and music, played a significant role in developing the idea of the nation.

– Romanticism, a cultural movement, focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings to create a sense of shared heritage and national identity.

– German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized the importance of folk culture and popularized the concept of “volksgeist.”

– Collecting and recording folk culture was essential for nation-building and reaching illiterate audiences.

– In Poland, national feelings were kept alive through music, language, and symbols like the polonaise and mazurka.

– Language also played a crucial role in developing nationalist sentiments, as seen in Poland’s resistance to Russian dominance.

– Polish language was forced out of schools under Russian occupation, leading to armed rebellion and clergy using Polish as a weapon of national resistance.

– The use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance, resulting in punishments and imprisonment for clergy and bishops.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

– The 1830s were marked by economic hardships and population growth in Europe.

– Overcrowded slums and unemployment were prevalent in cities due to rural-to-urban migration and a lack of employment opportunities.

– Small producers faced tough competition from cheap machine-made goods imported from England.

– Feudal dues and obligations burdened peasants in regions where the aristocracy held power.

– Food shortages and unemployment in 1848 led to a revolt in Paris, resulting in the proclamation of a Republic and the establishment of national workshops.

– In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who reduced payments for finished textiles.

– The weavers marched to the contractor’s mansion, demanding higher wages, and resorted to vandalism and looting when their demands were ignored.

– The contractor fled but returned with the army, resulting in a violent clash where eleven weavers were shot.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

– In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle class coincided with revolts by the poor and unemployed.

– The events in France led to the abdication of the monarch and the establishment of a republic based on universal male suffrage.

– In regions without independent nation-states, the liberal middle class combined demands for constitutionalism with national unification.

– The Frankfurt Parliament was convened in Germany, aiming to create a German nation with a constitutional monarchy.

– The King of Prussia rejected the crown offered by the parliament, and opposition from the aristocracy and military grew.

– The parliament, dominated by the middle classes, lost support from workers and artisans and was eventually disbanded.

– Women’s suffrage rights were denied during the election of the Assembly, despite their active participation in the liberal movement.

– The conservative forces could not fully suppress the liberal movements, leading to concessions being granted to the revolutionaries.

– Autocratic monarchies in Central and Eastern Europe began introducing changes seen in Western Europe before 1815, such as abolishing serfdom and granting autonomy to Hungary.

4. The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

– After 1848, nationalism in Europe shifted away from its association with democracy and revolution.

– Conservatives began mobilizing nationalist sentiments to promote state power and achieve political dominance.

– In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unite the German confederation into a nation-state with an elected parliament, but the monarchy, military, and Prussian landowners repressed the movement.

– Prussia, led by Otto von Bismarck, took the lead in the process of German unification through a series of wars with Austria, Denmark, and France.

– In January 1871, William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor, marking the completion of the unification process.

– The dominance of Prussian state power was evident in the nation-building process, with Prussian measures and practices serving as a model for the rest of Germany.

Italy Unified

– Italy, similar to Germany, had a history of political fragmentation with Italians living in various dynastic states and the Habsburg Empire.

– In the mid-19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, with Sardinia-Piedmont being the only one ruled by an Italian princely house.

– The north was under Austrian rule, the central regions were under the Pope’s control, and the south was dominated by the Bourbon kings of Spain.

– The Italian language had not yet developed a unified form and had many regional variations.

– Giuseppe Mazzini, during the 1830s, advocated for a unified Italian Republic and formed a secret society called Young Italy to promote his goals.

– The failures of the revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 shifted the focus of unification efforts to Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II.

– Cavour, the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, orchestrated a diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces in 1859, with support from armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi.

– In 1860, Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, gaining support from local peasants to oust the Spanish rulers.

– In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of a united Italy.

– However, much of the Italian population, particularly the illiterate peasant masses, remained unaware of the liberal-nationalist ideology.

– The peasants who supported Garibaldi in the south had limited knowledge and referred to Italy as “La Talia,” mistakenly believing it to be Victor Emmanuel’s wife.

The Strange Case of Britain

– The formation of the British nation-state was a gradual process, not a sudden revolution.

– Prior to the eighteenth century, ethnic identities like English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish were dominant.

– The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688, leading to the formation of a nation-state centered around England.

– The Act of Union in 1707 merged England and Scotland into the “United Kingdom of Great Britain,” with England exerting influence over Scotland.

– Scotland’s cultural and political institutions were suppressed, and repression was imposed on Catholic clans in the Scottish Highlands.

– Ireland, divided between Catholics and Protestants, faced English support for Protestant dominance and the suppression of Catholic revolts.

– Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801, solidifying a new British nation and promoting English culture and symbols.

5. Visualising the Nation

– Artists personified nations by representing them as female figures in the 18th and 19th centuries.

– The chosen female form did not represent a specific woman but symbolized the abstract idea of the nation.

– Female allegories, like Marianne in France and Germania in Germany, were created to embody the nation.

– Marianne was associated with Liberty and the Republic, depicted with attributes such as the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.

– Germania wore a crown of oak leaves, symbolizing heroism.

– Statues, coins, and stamps featured these allegorical figures to promote national unity and identification with the nation.

6 Nationalism and Imperialism

– By the late 19th century, nationalism became more narrow and intolerant, leading to conflicts and wars.

– The Balkans, with its ethnic and geographical diversity, was a major source of nationalist tension.

– The Ottoman Empire’s control over the Balkans weakened, and nationalist movements sought independence based on history and nationality.

– Rivalries among European powers, such as Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary, intensified in the Balkans, leading to wars and eventually the First World War.

– Anti-imperial movements emerged worldwide, aiming to establish independent nation-states and opposing European colonial dominance.

– Different regions developed their own forms of nationalism, but the idea of organizing societies into nation-states became widely accepted.