Nomadic Empires
Introduction and Sources
– The term “Nomadic Empires” may seem contradictory, but the Mongols of Central Asia challenge conventional definitions.
– Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, created a transcontinental empire with a fearsome military and sophisticated governance.
– Ruling a diverse dominion required adaptation and compromise, impacting both the Mongols and the territories they annexed.
– Knowledge of nomadic societies mainly comes from chronicles and travelogues, often biased against them.
– Russian scholars contributed valuable research on the Mongols, with Marxist historiography examining the transition from tribal to feudal society.
– Sources on the Mongol empire exist in various languages, requiring philological expertise for interpretation.
– The history of the Mongols, despite their achievements, still holds unexplored aspects for diligent scholars.
Introduction
– Genghis Khan united the Mongol people and had a vision to rule the world, expanding beyond the steppes of Central Asia.
– Genghis Khan’s descendants carried out campaigns that created the largest empire in history.
– Mongke, Genghis Khan’s grandson, warned Louis IX of France about the power of Genghis Khan and the consequences of opposing them.
– The campaigns of Batu, another grandson of Genghis Khan, devastated Russian lands and reached as far as Vienna.
– Genghis Khan’s conquests were seen as the “wrath of God” by many, signaling the beginning of the Day of Judgment.
– Despite poor technological communications, the Mongols effectively administered and controlled their vast dominion.
– The social and religious diversity within the Mongol dominion raises questions about how Genghis Khan dealt with different groups.
– Understanding the Mongols requires knowledge of their society, politics, and interactions with other groups, primarily derived from historical accounts.
Social and Political Background
– The Mongols were a diverse group of people with language ties to other tribes in the region.
– They had pastoralist and hunter-gatherer societies, residing in the steppes of Central Asia and Siberian forests respectively.
– The Mongols lived in tents and traveled with their herds between winter and summer pastures.
– Due to scarce resources, Mongol society was divided into patrilineal lineages, with richer families having more influence.
– Natural calamities and resource scarcity often led to conflict over pasture lands and predatory raids.
– Genghis Khan’s political system was more durable than Attila’s and survived beyond his lifetime.
– Mongols traded and bartered with sedentary neighbors in China, benefiting both parties.
– Trade ties could turn into conflicts and plunder when Mongol lineages allied or were in disarray.
– Nomadic raids on agrarian societies in China led to the construction of the Great Wall as a defensive measure.
The Career of Genghis Khan
– Genghis Khan, born around 1162, was the son of Yesugei, chieftain of the Kiyat, and was raised by his mother, Oelun-eke.
– He faced hardships, including capture, enslavement, and the kidnapping of his wife, Borte.
– Temujin formed important alliances with Boghurchu and Jamuqa, his blood brother.
– Through alliances and victories, he became the dominant figure in the steppe lands and was proclaimed Genghis Khan in 1206.
– Genghis Khan reorganized the Mongol people into a disciplined military force.
– He conquered the Hsi Hsia in 1209 and breached the Great Wall of China in 1213.
– Genghis Khan extended Mongol dominions to Transoxiana, Khwarazm, Azerbaijan, and encircled the Caspian Sea.
– His military achievements were a result of innovation, including horse-riding skills, archery, winter campaigns, siege tactics, and portable siege equipment.
– Genghis Khan died in 1227, leaving behind a remarkable legacy of military success.
The Mongols after Genghis Khan
– Mongol expansion after Genghis Khan’s death occurred in two phases: 1236-1242 saw gains in Russia, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland, and Hungary, while 1255-1300 led to the conquest of China, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.
– The empire’s frontier stabilized after these campaigns, but the original momentum in the West diminished after the 1260s.
– Internal politics of succession and the rise of the Toluyid lineage affected Mongol expansion.
– The pursuit of the great Khan office and the focus on China diverted forces and supplies from European campaigns.
– Defeat in Hungary and Egypt marked the end of western expansion.
– Conflict between the Jochid and Toluyid descendants further impacted European campaigns.
– Mongol expansion continued in China despite internal turbulence within the ruling family.
Social, Political and Military Organisation
– Mongol army consisted of all able-bodied adult males from different tribes and clans.
– Genghis Khan unified tribes and incorporated diverse groups, erasing their old tribal identities.
– Army organized into decimal units, breaking up old tribal groupings.
– Mongol army became a heterogeneous mass of people.
– Genghis Khan’s sons governed newly conquered territories in separate ulus.
– Courier system (yam) established for effective communication and travel across the empire.
– Conquered people faced destruction, devastation, and enslavement.
– Mongol conquests led to territorial links between Europe and China.
– Trade connections along the Silk Route expanded under Mongol rule.
– Gradual separation of Genghis Khan’s descendants into separate lineages and dynasties.
– Mongol rulers recruited civil administrators from conquered societies.
– Changes in the meaning of the yasa (Mongol law) symbolized the Mongols’ claim to a shared identity and distinctiveness.
Conclusion: Situating Genghis Khan and the Mongols in World History
– Genghis Khan is primarily remembered as a conqueror and destroyer by outsiders.
– For the Mongols, he was a revered leader who united and freed them from wars and exploitation.
– Mongol Empire embraced diversity in people, faiths, and languages.
– Personal beliefs of Mongol Khans did not dictate public policy.
– Mongol rulers recruited administrators and armed contingents from various ethnic groups and religions.
– Mongol Empire served as a model for later regimes, like the Mughals in India.
– The inspiration behind the Mongol Empire remains a powerful force, even influencing later monarchs like Timur.
– Modern-day Mongolia sees Genghis Khan as a national hero, using his achievements to shape their identity and future.
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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Nomadic Empires is an empire established by a group of nomads who due to their exceptional military skills were able to subjugate stable and prosperous regions.
Genghis Khan was there founder of Nomadic Empires.
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