Paths to Modernisation
Introduction and Sources
– East Asia was dominated by China at the beginning of the 19th century, while Japan remained isolated.
– China faced turmoil, lost political control, and underwent civil war, while Japan successfully built a modern nation-state, industrial economy, and colonial empire.
– China sought to redefine traditions, achieve equality, and rebuild the country through revolution, leading to the victory of the Chinese Communist Party in 1949.
– Japan’s drive for empire resulted in war and defeat, followed by a period of US Occupation and subsequent economic rebuilding.
– Both China and Japan have a strong tradition of historical writings, with history serving as a guide for rulers and the importance of written records.
– Modern scholarship in English has grown, drawing on the work of Chinese, Japanese, and European scholars, providing a deeper understanding of the countries.
– Naito Konan, a prominent Japanese scholar of China, influenced global scholars with his use of Western historiography and belief in the modern and democratic potential of Chinese history.
Introduction
– China is a vast continental country with diverse climates, dominated by major river systems and mountainous regions.
– The Han ethnic group and Chinese language (Putonghua) are dominant, but there are many other nationalities and minority languages spoken.
– Chinese cuisine varies regionally, with southern (Cantonese), northern, Szechuan, and eastern styles, reflecting different staple foods and flavors.
– Japan consists of a string of islands, with mountainous terrain and prone to earthquakes.
– The population is predominantly Japanese, with a small Ainu minority and Koreans brought as forced labor during Japan’s colonial period.
– Rice is the staple crop in Japan, and fish is a major source of protein, with raw fish dishes like sashimi and sushi gaining global popularity.
JAPAN
The Political System
– Shoguns ruled Japan from the 12th century, while the imperial court lost power.
– The Tokugawa family held the position of shogun from 1603 to 1867.
– Japan was divided into over 250 domains controlled by daimyo lords.
– The shogun exercised power over the domainal lords and maintained control over major cities and mines.
– The samurai class served the shoguns and daimyo as the ruling elite.
– Important changes in the late 16th century led to future development in Japan:
– Disarming the peasantry, allowing only samurai to carry swords, brought peace and order.
– Daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, promoting autonomy.
– Land surveys identified owners and taxpayers, establishing a stable revenue base.
– Urban centers like Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto grew, fostering a commercial economy and vibrant culture.
– Japan imported luxury goods but faced economic strain, leading to restrictions on precious metal exports.
– Social and intellectual changes sparked a reevaluation of Chinese influence and a focus on ancient Japanese literature and myths.
The Meiji Restoration
– In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry was sent by the USA to demand trade and diplomatic relations with Japan.
– Perry’s arrival increased the political significance of the emperor and led to the removal of the shogun in 1868.
– Japanese leaders were concerned about European colonial empires and wanted to learn from European ideas and technologies.
– The government pursued a policy of economic development and military strength to avoid colonization.
– The emperor system was established, combining reverence for the emperor with Westernization.
– A new school system was implemented, emphasizing loyalty, Japanese history, and moral values.
– The government restructured the administrative system and imposed military service.
– Opposition arose against the government’s measures, and tensions emerged between democratic ideals and an aggressive foreign policy.
– Japan engaged in wars with China and Russia, acquiring territory and suppressing democracy at home.
Modernising the Economy
– The Meiji reforms included modernizing the economy through agricultural taxes and the introduction of railways, imported machinery, and foreign technicians.
– Modern banking institutions were established, and subsidies and tax benefits supported companies like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo in shipbuilding.
– Zaibatsu, large business organizations controlled by individual families, dominated the economy until after World War II.
– Population growth was significant, reaching 55 million in 1920. The government encouraged migration to Hokkaido, Hawaii, Brazil, and Japan’s colonial empire.
– Urbanization increased as industry developed, with 21% of the population living in cities by 1925 and 32% by 1935.
Industrial Workers
– The number of people employed in manufacturing increased significantly from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913.
– Most workers were employed in small units without machinery or electric power, and over half of the workers in modern factories were women.
– The first modern strike in 1886 was organized by women.
– The size of factories grew, with over 2,000 employing more than a hundred workers by 1920.
– However, there were still over 550,000 workshops with less than five employees in 1940, supporting the family-centered ideology.
– The rapid industrial growth led to environmental destruction, and the government was forced to address pollution concerns after a mass protest led by Tanaka Shozo in 1897.
Aggressive Nationalism
– The Meiji constitution established a Diet with limited powers and a restricted franchise.
– The leaders of the imperial restoration maintained power and formed political parties.
– Popularly elected prime ministers governed between 1918 and 1931, but later lost power to national unity cabinets.
– The emperor held command over the military, and from 1890, the army and navy had independent control.
– In 1899, only serving generals and admirals were allowed to become ministers, strengthening the military.
– Japan’s military expansion and colonial empire were driven by a fear of Western powers, which was used to suppress opposition and increase taxes for defense funding.
‘Westernisation’ and ‘Tradition’
– Fukuzawa Yukichi, a Meiji intellectual, believed that Japan should aspire to the highest point of civilization represented by the USA and western European countries, shedding its “Asian” characteristics.
– The next generation of intellectuals questioned the complete acceptance of Western ideas and advocated for building national pride based on indigenous values.
– Miyake Setsurei argued that each nation should develop its unique talents in the interest of world civilization.
– Some intellectuals were attracted to Western liberalism and advocated for a democratic Japan, focusing on individual rights and freedoms.
– Ueki Emori, a leader of the Popular Rights Movement, demanded constitutional government, admired the French Revolution’s principles, and supported liberal education.
– Pressure from intellectuals led the government to announce a constitution.
Daily Life
– The traditional patriarchal household system in Japan, with multiple generations living together, began to change as more people became affluent.
– The concept of the nuclear family, with husband as breadwinner and wife as homemaker, gained popularity.
– This shift in family structure led to increased demand for new domestic goods, family entertainment, and housing options.
– In the 1920s, construction companies offered affordable housing with a low down payment and monthly installments, making homeownership more accessible to the middle class.
Overcoming Modernity
– State-centred nationalism reached its peak in the 1930s and 1940s as Japan embarked on wars to expand its empire in China and other parts of Asia.
– The aggression led to Japan’s involvement in the Second World War after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
– During this period, there were increased social controls, repression of dissent, and the formation of patriotic societies, including women’s organizations, to support the war effort.
– A symposium held in 1943 discussed the challenge of “Overcoming Modernity” and finding a balance between combating the West and preserving Japanese identity.
– Philosophers and intellectuals debated the role of music and the need for a new vision integrating science and religion to establish a Greater East Asia and a new world order.
After Defeat: Re-emerging as a Global Economic Power
– Japan’s attempt to establish a colonial empire ended in defeat during World War II.
– The US-led Occupation from 1945-1947 demilitarized Japan and introduced a new constitution, including Article 9 renouncing war as a state policy.
– Post-war reforms included agrarian reforms, trade union re-establishment, dismantling of zaibatsu, revival of political parties, and the first post-war elections in 1946 with women voting.
– The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after the war was known as the post-war “miracle,” supported by US aid and the demand from Korean and Vietnamese wars.
– The 1964 Tokyo Olympics symbolized Japan’s progress, while the development of high-speed bullet trains represented advanced technology and productivity.
– In the 1960s, civil society movements emerged, addressing industrialization’s impact on health and the environment, leading to government action, legal regulations, and improved conditions.
– Japan faces the challenge of utilizing its political and technological capabilities to maintain its position as a leading global power while addressing contemporary issues.
CHINA
– Modern Chinese history focused on regaining sovereignty, ending foreign occupation, and achieving equality and development.
– Three groups influenced Chinese debates: early reformers using traditional ideas in new ways, republican revolutionaries inspired by Japan and the West, and the Communist Party of China aiming to address inequalities and expel foreigners.
– China’s encounter with the West in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western sciences but had limited immediate impact.
– The Opium War in the 19th century weakened the Qing dynasty and fueled demands for reform.
– Qing reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao aimed to strengthen China through modern administrative, military, and educational systems, as well as constitutional government.
– Negative examples of colonization, such as Poland and India, influenced Chinese thinkers and fueled the desire to resist the West.
– Traditional Confucianism was seen as a barrier to new ideas and institutions.
– Chinese students studied in Japan, Britain, and France, bringing back new ideas and playing a role in the republican movement.
– The Chinese examination system, granting entry into the ruling class, was abolished in 1905 after the Russo-Japanese War.
Establishing the Republic
– Sun Yat-sen established a republic in 1911 and is considered the founder of modern China. His Three Principles were nationalism, democracy, and socialism.
– The May Fourth Movement of 1919 protested against the post-war peace conference’s decisions, calling for modern science, democracy, and nationalism to save China.
– The Guomindang (National People’s Party) and the CCP emerged as major forces after the republican revolution, striving for unity and stability.
– Chiang Kai-shek became the leader of the Guomindang and aimed to control warlords and eliminate communists. He promoted a secular Confucianism and emphasized militarization and traditional gender roles.
– The Guomindang’s social base was urban, with slow industrial growth and low wages for workers. Women’s rights, family-building, and romantic discussions gained attention.
– Schools, universities, and journalism contributed to social and cultural change. Life Weekly, edited by Zao Taofen, introduced new ideas and leaders like Gandhi and Ataturk.
– The Guomindang’s failure to unite the country stemmed from its narrow social base, limited political vision, and neglect of the peasantry and rising social inequalities.
The Rise of the Communist Party of China
– Japanese invasion in 1937 weakened China and caused significant hardships for the population.
– Rural China faced ecological and socio-economic crises due to soil exhaustion, deforestation, floods, exploitative land-tenure systems, indebtedness, primitive technology, and poor communications.
– The CCP was founded in 1921 and was influenced by the Russian Revolution. Mao Zedong emphasized the role of the peasantry in the revolution.
– Mao implemented radical policies in Jiangxi, including land redistribution and the promotion of women’s rights.
– The Guomindang’s blockade led to the Long March (1934-35), during which the Communists traveled 6,000 miles to Shanxi. They further developed their program and gained a strong social base.
– During the war, the Communists and Guomindang worked together, but after the war, the Communists emerged victorious, while the Guomindang was defeated.
Establishing the New Democracy: 1949-65
– The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949 based on the principles of “New Democracy” and an alliance of social classes.
– The government implemented policies to gradually end private enterprise and ownership of land.
– In 1953, the government announced a shift towards socialist transformation.
– The Great Leap Forward movement in 1958 aimed to rapidly industrialize the country and encouraged backyard steel furnaces and collective farming.
– Mao Zedong emphasized the creation of a “socialist man” with love for the fatherland, people, labor, science, and public property.
– Mass organizations were established for different groups, such as farmers, women, and students.
– Some Party members, like Liu Shaochi and Deng Xiaoping, sought to modify the commune system and improve industrial organization.
Conflicting Visions: 1965-78
– Mao Zedong initiated the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965 to counter his critics and promote his vision of a “Socialist Man.”
– The Red Guards, consisting mainly of students and the army, targeted old culture, customs, and habits.
– Professionals and students were sent to rural areas to learn from the masses, prioritizing ideology over expertise.
– The Cultural Revolution led to turmoil, weakened the Party, and disrupted the economy and education system.
– By the late 1960s, there was a shift towards emphasizing social discipline and industrial development.
– The Party aimed to build China into a powerful nation by the end of the century.
Reforms from 1978
– Deng Xiaoping maintained strong party control while introducing a socialist market economy after the Cultural Revolution.
– The Party declared the goal of Four Modernisations in 1978, focusing on science, industry, agriculture, and defense.
– Calls for democracy and criticism of the CCP’s failures in poverty alleviation and addressing sexual exploitation were suppressed in the late 1970s.
– In 1989, student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square were brutally repressed, leading to international condemnation.
– Post-reform, debates emerged on China’s development, with the Party advocating political control, economic liberalization, and integration into the global market.
– Critics highlight increasing social inequalities and question the heavy emphasis on the market.
– There is a growing revival of traditional ideas like Confucianism and the belief that China can build a modern society based on its own traditions.
The Story of Taiwan
– Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan in 1949 and established the Republic of China.
– Taiwan was a Japanese colony until the end of World War II.
– The GMD government under Chiang Kai-shek was repressive, suppressing free speech and political opposition.
– Land reforms were implemented, leading to increased agricultural productivity and economic modernization.
– Taiwan’s economy, heavily reliant on trade, grew rapidly, with a decreasing wealth gap.
– Taiwan’s transformation into a democracy began after Chiang’s death in 1975, with martial law lifted in 1987 and the legalization of opposition parties.
– Diplomatic relations with Taiwan are limited due to its status as part of China, but trade and cross-strait relations have improved.
– The question of reunification with the mainland remains contentious, but China may tolerate a semi-autonomous Taiwan if it does not seek independence.
The Story of Korea
Beginnings of Modernisation
– During the late 19th century, Korea faced internal strife and foreign pressure.
– Korea implemented modernization reforms but was eventually annexed by imperial Japan in 1910.
– Koreans resisted Japanese suppression and sought independence through demonstrations and appeals to foreign leaders.
– Japan’s colonial rule ended in 1945 due to its defeat in World War II.
– Independence activists played a crucial role in ensuring Korea’s independence.
– After liberation, the Korean Peninsula was temporarily divided along the 38th parallel, with separate governments established in the North and the South in 1948.
A Post-War Nation
– The Korean War started in June 1950 as a proxy war between the United Nations (led by the US) supporting South Korea and communist China supporting North Korea.
– After three years, the war ended in an armistice agreement in July 1953, leaving Korea divided.
– The war resulted in significant loss of life, property, and hindered economic development and democratization in Korea.
– South Korea relied on economic assistance from the USA to recover.
– President Syngman Rhee, who had been democratically elected, extended his administration through illegal constitutional amendments.
– In April 1960, the April Revolution occurred due to a rigged election, leading to Rhee’s resignation.
– The Democratic Party administration that followed struggled to address citizen demands and faced internal divisions.
– The military coup in May 1961, led by General Park Chung-hee, overthrew the Democratic Party government.
Rapid Industrialisation under Strong Leadership
– In October 1963, Park Chung-hee, the leader of a military coup, was elected as the president of Korea.
– The Park administration implemented a state-led, export-oriented policy to drive economic growth.
– Economic growth was achieved through a focus on labor-intensive light industries, followed by heavy and chemical industries.
– The New Village (Saemaul) Movement was introduced in 1970 to modernize the agricultural sector and improve rural living conditions.
– Korea’s economic growth was facilitated by strong leadership, capable bureaucrats, ambitious entrepreneurs, and a well-educated workforce.
– The high level of education, open economic policy, foreign investment, domestic savings, and remittances contributed to economic development.
– Park Chung-hee revised the constitution to consolidate power and extended his presidency through the Yusin Constitution, granting him absolute authority.
– The economic crisis, political instability, and opposition to the Yusin Constitution led to the end of the Park administration in October 1979 with Park’s assassination.
Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratisation
– After the death of Park Chung-hee, another military coup led by Chun Doo-hwan took place in December 1979.
– Protests demanding democracy erupted in May 1980, but the military faction suppressed the movement and implemented martial law.
– The Gwangju Democratisation Movement in Gwangju city challenged martial law but was also suppressed.
– Chun Doo-hwan became the president through an indirect election under the Yusin Constitution.
– The Chun administration focused on suppressing democratisation influences to maintain regime stability.
– Economic growth, urbanization, improved education, and media advancements increased citizens’ political awareness and demands for direct presidential elections.
– In May 1987, public outrage over the death of a tortured university student sparked a large-scale struggle for democratisation, known as the June Democracy Movement.
– The Chun administration was pressured to revise the constitution, allowing for direct elections and marking the beginning of a new era of Korean democracy.
Korean Democracy and the IMF Crisis
– Korean democracy advanced through a peaceful transfer of power in presidential elections, with Kim Young-sam compromising to create a ruling party and Kim Dae-jung becoming the first civilian president.
– Economic growth played a crucial role, but citizens’ political awareness and demands for republicanism drove the progress of Korean democracy.
– The candlelight protests in 2016 showcased the maturity of Korean democracy, as citizens peacefully demonstrated within democratic boundaries.
– Korea faced a foreign currency crisis in 1997, resolved with IMF support and citizen participation in foreign loan repayment through the Gold Collection Movement.
– Park Geun-hye’s presidency ended with impeachment and removal from office due to controversy surrounding her management of government affairs.
Two Roads to Modernisation / Paths to Modernisation
– Japan’s modernization involved retaining traditional skills and practices while imitating Western powers, leading to aggressive nationalism, a repressive regime, and a colonial empire.
– Creatively using traditions in new ways was crucial for transforming institutions and daily life in Japan.
– China’s path to modernization was marked by foreign imperialism, weak government control, and immense suffering caused by war, banditry, and natural disasters.
– The Communist Party of China rejected traditions, built a highly centralized state, and promoted equality, but its repressive political system manipulated ideals and created new challenges.
– China’s economic success through market reforms is accompanied by growing inequalities and a revival of suppressed traditions, raising questions about development while preserving heritage.
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