Kings, Farmers and Towns

Sources

The post-Harappan period in the Indian subcontinent witnessed various developments over a span of 1,500 years.
The Rigveda was composed during this time by people living along the Indus and its tributaries.
Agricultural settlements emerged in different regions, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.
Pastoral populations were present in the Deccan and southern regions.
Megalithic structures and new burial practices emerged in central and south India during the first millennium BCE, often accompanied by iron tools and weapons.
From the sixth century BCE, early states, empires, and kingdoms began to emerge.
Changes in agricultural production and the appearance of new towns accompanied these political developments.
Historians rely on various sources, such as inscriptions, texts, coins, and visual materials, to understand these developments.
However, it is important to note that these sources do not provide a complete narrative of the entire historical period.

1. Prinsep and Piyadassi

In the 1830s, James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts used in early Indian inscriptions and coins.
Inscriptions often mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi, later identified as Asoka.
European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts in various languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties in Indian political history.
By the early 20th century, the broad outlines of political history were established.
Scholars then shifted their focus to exploring connections between political changes and economic and social developments.
They realized that while links existed, they were not always straightforward or direct.

2. The Earliest States

2.1 The sixteen Mahajanapadas

The sixth century BCE marked a significant turning point in early Indian history, characterized by the rise of states, cities, iron usage, and coinage.
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as diverse systems of thought during this period.
Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen important states called mahajanapadas, including Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti.
Some mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, while others were oligarchies with power shared among several men, called rajas.
Each mahajanapada had a fortified capital city, and resources were required to maintain these cities, armies, and bureaucracies.
Dharmasutras, composed by Brahmanas in Sanskrit, provided norms for rulers, who were expected to be Kshatriyas, and advised them to collect taxes and tribute from various social groups.
It is unclear whether resources were also obtained from pastoralists and forest peoples, but raids on neighboring states were considered a legitimate way to acquire wealth.
Some states developed standing armies and bureaucracies, while others relied on militias recruited from the peasantry.

2.2 First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, Magadha emerged as the most powerful mahajanapada.
Historians attribute Magadha’s rise to factors such as productive agriculture, accessible iron mines, the availability of elephants for the army, and convenient communication through the Ganga and its tributaries.
Early Buddhist and Jaina texts credit individual rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda, along with their ministers, for Magadha’s power.
Initially, Rajagaha served as the capital of Magadha, located in present-day Rajgir, Bihar.
In the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna), which provided strategic control over Ganga’s communication routes.

3. An Early Empire

The growth of Magadha reached its peak with the establishment of the Mauryan Empire.
Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire around 321 BCE and expanded its control to regions as far as northwest Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Asoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, is considered one of the most renowned rulers of early India.
Asoka conquered Kalinga, which corresponds to the present-day coastal region of Orissa.

3.1 Finding out about the Mauryas

Historians rely on various sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.
Archaeological finds, particularly sculptures, provide valuable evidence.
Contemporary works, like the fragmented account of Greek ambassador Megasthenes at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, are also used.
The Arthashastra, believed to be composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta, is another important source.
Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic literature, as well as Sanskrit literary works, mention the Mauryas.
The inscriptions of Asoka, particularly on rocks and pillars, are highly regarded as valuable sources.
Asoka was the first ruler to inscribe his messages on stone surfaces, proclaiming principles of dhamma, including respect for elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and renunciants, kindness towards slaves and servants, and respect for other religions and traditions.

3.2 Administering the empire

The Mauryan Empire had five major political centers: the capital, Pataliputra, and the provincial centers of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
Asokan inscriptions reveal a consistent message throughout the empire, spanning present-day Pakistan, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Uttarakhand.
However, historians believe that a uniform administrative system is unlikely due to the vast diversity of the regions within the empire.
Administrative control was likely strongest in the capital and provincial centers, strategically located on trade routes or associated with important resources like gold mines.
Communication through land and riverine routes was crucial for the empire’s existence, with arrangements made for provisions and protection during journeys.
The army played a significant role in ensuring protection, and Megasthenes mentioned a committee with subcommittees overseeing various military activities.
Asoka propagated dhamma to hold the empire together, appointing special officers known as dhamma mahamatta to spread its principles for the well-being of the people.

3.3 How important was the empire?

The emergence of the Mauryan Empire was seen as a significant milestone in early Indian history by historians in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The idea of an empire in early India was challenging and exciting for Indian historians under colonial rule.
Archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, particularly stone sculptures, were considered examples of impressive imperial art.
The unique message on Asokan inscriptions, portraying Asoka as a powerful yet humble ruler, distinguished him from later rulers with grandiose titles.
Nationalist leaders in the 20th century viewed Asoka as an inspiring figure.
However, the Mauryan Empire’s importance is debated as it lasted for about 150 years, a relatively short period in Indian history.
The empire did not cover the entire subcontinent, and even within its frontiers, control was not uniform.
By the 2nd century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms had emerged in various parts of the subcontinent.

4. New Notions of Kingship

4.1 Chiefs and kings in the south

New kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and southern regions, including the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam.
The stability and prosperity of these states are well documented in sources such as early Tamil Sangam texts.
The Satavahanas, who ruled over parts of western and central India, and the Shakas, of Central Asian origin, established their kingdoms and derived revenues from long-distance trade.
The social origins of these rulers were often unclear, but they sought to claim social status once they attained power.

4.2 Divine kings

The Kushanas, who ruled over a vast kingdom from Central Asia to northwest India, employed the strategy of identifying with various deities to claim high status.
Colossal statues of Kushana rulers found at sites like Mat near Mathura and in Afghanistan suggest their self-perception as godlike.
Kushana rulers adopted the title devaputra, meaning “son of god,” possibly influenced by Chinese rulers who referred to themselves as sons of heaven.
In the fourth century, larger states, including the Gupta Empire, emerged. These states relied on powerful local leaders called samantas, who controlled land and offered homage and military support to the rulers.
The histories of Gupta rulers are reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions, including prashastis, which were composed in praise of kings and patrons by poets.
While historians seek factual information from such compositions, they are often valued as poetic works rather than strictly accurate accounts. The Prayaga Prashasti, composed by the court poet Harishena for Samudragupta, exemplifies this.

5. A Changing Countryside

5.1 Popular perceptions of kings

Historians reconstruct early Indian history using various sources, including archaeological finds, contemporary works, and inscriptions of Asoka.
The Mauryan Empire emerged as a major landmark, but its control was not uniform, and new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged within its frontiers.
The Deccan and southern regions witnessed the rise of stable and prosperous kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
Chiefs and kings, such as the Satavahanas and Shakas, derived revenues from long-distance trade and sought social status through various means.
The Kushanas projected notions of divine kingship through colossal statues and the adoption of the title “devaputra.”
Larger states, including the Gupta Empire, emerged by the fourth century, and the power dynamics involved samantas, who could become kings or reduce weak rulers to subordination.
Ordinary people’s thoughts on rulers can be inferred from stories in anthologies like the Jatakas, highlighting strained relationships and oppressive taxes.
Strategies to meet growing tax demands included increased production and the option of escaping to the forest.

5.2 Strategies for increasing production

– Shift to plough agriculture in fertile river valleys, like Ganga and Kaveri, from the 6th century BCE, with iron-tipped ploughshare increasing productivity.
limited adoption of the iron ploughshare in semi-arid regions and hilly tracts, where hoe agriculture was more suitable.
use of irrigation, including wells, tanks, and canals, to increase agricultural production.
construction of irrigation works organized by communities and individuals, with powerful individuals like kings recording such activities in inscriptions.

5.3 Differences in rural society

The introduction of technologies led to uneven benefits and growing differentiation among agricultural workers.
Buddhist and Tamil texts mention various categories of people engaged in agriculture, including landless laborers, small peasants, large landholders, and village headmen.
Differences in access to land, labor, and technologies likely contributed to social distinctions.
Control over land became a crucial issue, discussed in legal texts.

5.4 Land grants and new rural elites

Inscriptions, mainly on copper plates, record grants of land made in the early centuries CE.
Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit, but some had sections in local languages like Tamil or Telugu.
Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, made land grants despite legal texts prohibiting women’s independent access to resources.
Land grants reveal the presence of Brahmanas, peasants, and others who owed obligations and produce to the king or his representatives.
The impact of land grants is debated, with some seeing it as a strategy to extend agriculture or gain allies, while others view it as a reflection of weakening political power.
Land grants shed light on the relationship between cultivators and the state, but certain groups like pastoralists, fishermen, and artisans were often beyond official reach and left few records.

6. Towns and Trade

6.1 New cities

Urban centers emerged in various parts of the subcontinent from around the sixth century BCE, often serving as capitals of mahajanapadas.
These cities were strategically located along communication routes, including riverine, land, and coastal routes.
Cities like Pataliputra thrived along river routes, Ujjayini along land routes, and Puhar near the coast.
Urban centers such as Mathura were vibrant hubs of commerce, culture, and politics.

6.2 Urban populations: Elites and craftspeople

Fortified cities were inhabited by kings and ruling elites, and extensive excavations are challenging due to present-day habitation.
Excavations have yielded various artifacts, including glossy Northern Black Polished Ware, ornamental items, tools, weapons, vessels, and figurines made from materials like gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta.
By the second century BCE, short votive inscriptions in cities mention the names and occupations of donors, revealing a diverse urban population including washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, and kings.
Guilds or shrenis, organizations of craft producers and merchants, are sometimes mentioned, indicating their role in procuring materials, regulating production, and marketing goods.
Craftspersons likely utilized iron tools to meet the demands of urban elites.

6.3 Trade in the subcontinent and beyond

Land and river routes were established in the sixth century BCE, connecting various parts of the subcontinent and extending into Central Asia, overseas to East and North Africa, West Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.
Rulers sought to control these routes, potentially offering protection in exchange for payment.
Travelers on these routes included peddlers, merchants with caravans, and seafarers.
Successful merchants, known as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could accumulate immense wealth.
Various goods were transported, including salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, and medicinal plants.
Spices, particularly pepper, textiles, and medicinal plants, were highly sought after in the Roman Empire and transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.

6.4 Coins and kings

The introduction of coinage, such as punch-marked coins made of silver and copper from the sixth century BCE, facilitated exchanges and trade.
These coins have been found at various excavation sites throughout the subcontinent, indicating their widespread use.
Coins were likely issued by kings as well as merchants, bankers, and townspeople.
Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing the names and images of rulers in the second century BCE.
The Kushanas issued large hoards of gold coins in the first century CE, indicating significant economic transactions.
Trade networks extended beyond political boundaries, as evidenced by the presence of Roman coins in south India.
Tribal republics like the Yaudheyas issued copper coins, indicating their participation in economic exchanges.
The Gupta rulers issued remarkable gold coins that facilitated long-distance transactions.
Since the sixth century CE, finds of gold coins have decreased, leading to debates among historians regarding whether this indicates an economic crisis or a shift in trade patterns.
Some argue that despite fewer coin finds, inscriptions and texts still mention the use of coins, suggesting continued circulation.

7. Back to Basics: How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

7.1 Deciphering Brahmi

Most modern Indian language scripts are derived from Brahmi, the script used in Asokan inscriptions.
European scholars, with the help of Indian pandits, compared contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts to older specimens to trace the evolution of these scripts.
Early scholars mistakenly assumed that early inscriptions were in Sanskrit, but they were actually in Prakrit.
James Prinsep, after extensive research, successfully deciphered Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

7.2 How Kharosthi was read

The decipherment of the Kharosthi script used in northwest inscriptions was aided by the coins of Indo-Greek kings.
The coins contained names written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts, allowing European scholars to compare the letters.
James Prinsep identified the language of Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, enabling the reading of longer inscriptions.

7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptions

Asokan inscriptions use titles instead of the ruler’s name, such as “devanampiya” and “piyadassi,” which help identify them as belonging to the same ruler.
Statements in inscriptions need to be assessed by historians to determine their accuracy, plausibility, or exaggeration.
Epigraphists sometimes add words within brackets to clarify the meaning of sentences without changing the author’s intended message.
Assessing the impact of inscriptions raises questions about literacy, comprehension of Prakrit, and the extent of people’s adherence to the king’s orders.
The absence of an Asokan inscription reflecting the ruler’s anguish in the conquered region raises questions about its significance and potential reasons for its absence.

8. The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

Epigraphy has limitations due to technical factors like faint letters, damage, and missing parts, leading to uncertainty in reconstructions.
The exact meaning of words in inscriptions can be challenging to determine, especially when they are specific to a particular time or place.
Scholars constantly debate and discuss alternative interpretations of inscriptions, as seen in epigraphical journals.
Many inscriptions remain undeciphered or unpublished, and the surviving inscriptions represent only a fraction of what was originally inscribed.
Inscriptions often focus on grand events and may not capture the everyday practices or perspectives of common people.
The perspective of the individuals commissioning the inscriptions needs to be balanced with other sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the past.