The End Of Bipolarity
“Discover the changes in world politics with our ‘The End of Bipolarity Class 12 notes”. We’ll break down how the old way of global power balance ended, making room for a new era in international relations.
What was the Soviet System?
The USSR emerged following the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917, driven by socialist ideals and the pursuit of an egalitarian society. This note will outline the key aspects of the Soviet Union’s history, political system, economy, and challenges it faced.
Formation of the USSR:
– The USSR was established in 1917 after the Russian socialist revolution.
– The revolution aimed to create an egalitarian society based on socialist principles, emphasizing equality.
– A fundamental goal was the abolition of private property, with a focus on collective ownership.
Political System:
The Soviet political system revolved around the Communist Party.
– No other political parties or opposition groups were permitted.
– The state had centralized control over the economy and all aspects of life.
Expansion and Influence:
– After World War II, Eastern European countries liberated by the Soviet army adopted similar political and economic systems, forming the ‘socialist bloc.’
– The Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, united these countries under Soviet leadership.
– The USSR emerged as a global power, second only to the United States, with a well-developed economy and vast resources.
Soviet Economy:
– The Soviet economy featured central planning and state control.
– It possessed extensive energy resources, machinery production, and transportation infrastructure.
– Basic necessities such as health, education, and welfare were subsidized by the government.
– Unemployment was virtually non-existent, and state ownership dominated various sectors.
Bureaucracy and Authoritarianism:
– The Soviet system became increasingly bureaucratic and authoritarian, causing difficulties for citizens.
– Lack of democracy and freedom of speech led to dissent expressed through humor and satire.
– The Communist Party had unaccountable control over all institutions.
Republics and Dominance:
– The Soviet Union comprised fifteen different republics, with Russia being one of them.
– In practice, Russia held significant dominance, leading to neglect and suppression of other regions’ cultural and political aspirations.
Economic Challenges:
– The USSR managed to match the United States in the arms race but suffered economic setbacks.
– Technological and infrastructure gaps with the West became apparent.
– Productivity and technology lagged, resulting in shortages of consumer goods.
– The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 further strained the system.
– Despite rising wages, the economy stagnated, and food imports increased, revealing the USSR’s economic vulnerabilities.
Gorbachev and the Disintegration
Mikhail Gorbachev, as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985, initiated reforms with the intention of modernizing and democratizing the USSR. These reforms, however, led to unintended consequences, including the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and eventually the disintegration of the Soviet Union itself. This note will outline the key events and factors that contributed to the dissolution of the USSR.
Gorbachev’s Reform Agenda:
– Gorbachev aimed to reform the Soviet system to keep pace with Western information and technological advancements.
– His policies included normalizing relations with the West and democratizing and reforming the Soviet Union.
Eastern European Unrest:
– In response to Gorbachev’s reforms, Eastern European countries within the Soviet bloc began to protest against their own governments and Soviet control.
– The absence of Soviet intervention during these protests led to the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
Internal Crisis in the USSR:
– Simultaneously, the USSR faced a rapidly escalating crisis.
– Gorbachev initiated economic and political reforms, including democratization, but faced opposition from Communist Party leaders.
1991 Coup Attempt:
– In 1991, a coup was attempted by Communist Party hardliners, encouraged by the fear of losing power.
– The people, having experienced some freedom, rejected the old-style rule of the Communist Party.
– Boris Yeltsin emerged as a national hero by opposing the coup.
Shift of Power to the Republics:
– Yeltsin’s victory in a popular election in the Russian Republic led to a shift of power from the Soviet center to the republics.
– Europeanized parts of the Soviet Union started to view themselves as sovereign states, seeking independence.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union:
– In December 1991, under Yeltsin’s leadership, three major republics—Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus—declared the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
– The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned, and capitalism and democracy were adopted as the basis for the post-Soviet republics.
Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS):
– The declaration of the USSR’s disintegration and the formation of the CIS took other republics, especially Central Asian ones, by surprise.
– Central Asian republics were quickly included as founding members of the CIS.
– Russia was recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union and inherited its international commitments, including a seat on the UN Security Council and nuclear status.
Why did the Soviet Union Disintegrate?
The sudden disintegration of the Soviet Union, the second most powerful country in the world during the Cold War era, raises questions about the reasons behind this monumental collapse. Understanding the factors contributing to the fall of the USSR provides insights not only into its history but also into the potential vulnerabilities of political systems. This note will explore the key factors that led to the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
Internal Weaknesses:
– The Soviet political and economic institutions failed to meet the aspirations of the people.
– Economic stagnation over many years resulted in severe consumer shortages and widespread doubt and questioning of the system by the Soviet society.
Economic Burden and Disparities:
– The Soviet economy allocated significant resources to maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal.
– Development efforts in Eastern Europe and the five Central Asian Republics further strained the economy.
– Citizens became more aware of the economic advancements in the West, leading to disillusionment as they witnessed disparities between their system and Western capitalism.
Administrative and Political Stagnation:
– The Communist Party, in power for over 70 years, lacked accountability to the people.
– Slow and stifling administration, corruption, reluctance to correct mistakes, and centralization of authority alienated ordinary citizens.
– Bureaucrats within the party gained privileges, causing a disconnect between the government and the populace.
Gorbachev’s Reforms:
– Gorbachev initiated reforms to address these issues, promising economic recovery, modernization, and administrative loosening.
– Despite accurate diagnosis and reform attempts, Gorbachev’s reforms unleashed unpredictable forces and expectations that divided public opinion.
Nationalism and Sovereignty Movements:
– The rise of nationalism and demands for sovereignty within various republics, including Russia, the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, and others, played a crucial role in the USSR’s disintegration.
– Nationalist sentiments had existed throughout Soviet history, but Gorbachev’s reforms accelerated and intensified these feelings.
– Nationalist unrest was most prominent in the more “European” and prosperous regions, such as Russia and the Baltic states, as well as Ukraine and Georgia.
– People in these regions felt alienated from the Central Asian republics and believed they were paying an economic price to support less developed areas within the USSR.
Consequences of Disintegration
End of Cold War Confrontations:
– The collapse signaled the end of Cold War confrontations between the two ideological blocs—socialist and capitalist.
– The ideological dispute between socialism and capitalism, which had driven military engagement, the arms race, and the accumulation of nuclear weapons, lost its relevance.
– Demilitarization and the pursuit of a new era of peace became imperative.
Shift in Power Relations and Ideals:
– The change in power dynamics reshaped the relative influence of ideas and institutions in world politics.
– Two possibilities emerged: either the remaining superpower (the United States) would dominate, creating a unipolar system, or multiple countries or groups of countries could become significant players, resulting in a multipolar system.
– The United States emerged as the sole superpower and promoted the dominance of the capitalist economic system internationally.
– International institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund gained substantial influence by offering loans to countries transitioning to capitalism.
– The concept of liberal democracy gained prominence as the preferred political system for organizing societies.
Emergence of New Independent Countries:
– The dissolution of the Soviet bloc led to the emergence of numerous new countries, each with its independent aspirations and choices.
– Baltic and East European states sought membership in the European Union and desired integration into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
– Central Asian countries aimed to maintain close ties with Russia while also establishing relationships with other global powers such as the United States and China.
– The international system witnessed the emergence of various new players, each with unique identities, interests, and economic and political challenges.
Shock Therapy in Post-Communist Regimes
Following the collapse of communism, many countries in Russia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe underwent a challenging process of transition from authoritarian socialist systems to democratic capitalist ones. This transition, influenced by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), was commonly referred to as “shock therapy.” The key features and consequences of shock therapy were:
Shift to Capitalist Economy:
– Shock therapy demanded a complete shift to a capitalist economy, requiring the eradication of all structures developed during the Soviet era.
– Private ownership became the dominant pattern of property ownership, leading to immediate privatization of state assets and corporate ownership changes.
– Collective farms were replaced by private farming, marking a transition to capitalism in agriculture.
Embrace of Free Trade:
– Shock therapy called for a drastic change in the external orientation of these economies.
– Economic development was to be achieved through increased trade, necessitating a sudden and complete switch to free trade.
– The free trade regime and foreign direct investment (FDI) were seen as the primary drivers of change.
– Openness to foreign investment, financial deregulation, and currency convertibility were key components of this transition.
Dissolution of Trade Alliances:
– The transition also entailed the dissolution of existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc.
– Each state from the former bloc established direct links with Western countries rather than with neighboring states.
– This shift gradually absorbed these states into the Western economic system, with Western capitalist states leading and guiding the development of the region through various agencies and organizations.
Consequences of Shock Therapy
The shock therapy administered in the 1990s, aimed at transitioning former communist countries to democratic capitalism, did not lead to the promised utopia of mass consumption. Instead, it resulted in economic ruin and disaster for the people of the entire region. The adverse consequences of shock therapy, focusing on Russia as a prominent example are:
Collapse of State-Controlled Industries:
– In Russia, nearly 90 percent of state-controlled industries were put up for sale to private individuals and companies.
– Market-driven restructuring led to the virtual disappearance of entire industries, leading to a severe economic downturn.
– This process was often characterized as “the largest garage sale in history” as valuable industries were undervalued and sold at low prices.
Currency Devaluation and Inflation:
– The value of the Russian ruble declined significantly, leading to economic instability.
– High rates of inflation eroded people’s savings and purchasing power.
– Russia had to import food as the collective farm system disintegrated.
Economic Decline and Social Welfare Erosion:
– Real GDP in Russia in 1999 was lower than it was in 1989, indicating a prolonged economic slump.
– The old social welfare system was systematically dismantled, pushing many into poverty.
– The middle class was marginalized, and academic and intellectual talent either disintegrated or emigrated.
– The emergence of a mafia in many countries added to economic instability.
Privatization and Economic Inequality:
– Privatization efforts led to new disparities, particularly in post-Soviet states like Russia.
– Economic inequality between individuals and regions became pronounced.
– The construction of democratic institutions did not receive the same priority as economic transformation, leading to powerful executive presidencies and relatively weak parliaments.
Authoritarianism and Weak Judicial Systems:
– Many Central Asian presidents wielded great powers and became authoritarian, suppressing dissent and opposition.
– Judicial culture and independence of the judiciary were yet to be established in most of these countries.
Late Economic Revival Through Natural Resources:
– Most of these economies, especially Russia, began to revive around 2000, about ten years after gaining independence.
– Economic recovery was primarily driven by the export of natural resources such as oil, natural gas, and minerals.
– Countries like Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan became major oil and gas producers, while others benefited from oil pipelines crossing their territories.
Tensions and Conflicts
Many former Soviet Republics and Eastern European countries have been plagued by conflicts, civil wars, and insurgencies since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. These conflicts have often been exacerbated by the involvement of outside powers. This note will examine some key instances of conflict and instability in these regions.
Russia:
– Chechnya and Dagestan have experienced violent secessionist movements, challenging Moscow’s authority.
– Moscow’s military response, marked by indiscriminate bombings, has resulted in numerous human rights violations but failed to suppress aspirations for independence.
Central Asia:
– Tajikistan endured a ten-year civil war that persisted until 2001.
– The region has also witnessed numerous sectarian conflicts and disputes over resources and river waters.
– Outside powers, including the United States, Russia, and China, compete for influence and access to hydrocarbon resources in Central Asia.
South Caucasus:
– In Azerbaijan’s Nagorno-Karabakh province, some local Armenians seek to secede and join Armenia, leading to conflicts.
– Georgia has experienced demand for independence from two provinces, resulting in a civil war.
– Political movements against existing regimes have arisen in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia, leading to instability.
Balkans:
– The breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s resulted in severe conflicts, especially in Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
– Ethnic Serbs opposed the declaration of independence by these provinces, leading to inter-ethnic civil wars.
– NATO intervention and the bombing of Yugoslavia followed, aiming to address the conflict and humanitarian crisis.
Competition Among Outside Powers:
– Central Asia, rich in hydrocarbon resources, has become a zone of competition among outside powers and oil companies.
– The region’s proximity to Russia, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and West Asia has led to strategic interests for these nations.
– The U.S. sought military bases in Central Asia after 9/11, leading to payments to Central Asian governments for bases and air traffic rights during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
– Russia perceives these states as its “Near Abroad” and aims to maintain influence, while China is interested in oil resources and trade.
India and Post-communist Countries
India has maintained positive relations with many post-communist countries, with the strongest ties existing between India and Russia. Indo-Russian relations are characterized by trust, common interests, and deep-rooted popular perceptions, making them a significant aspect of India’s foreign policy. This note will explore India’s relations with post-communist countries, focusing on the special relationship with Russia.
Historical Ties and Cultural Exchange:
– India’s relations with post-communist countries are marked by a history of cultural exchange and affinity.
– Hindi film stars like Raj Kapoor and Amitabh Bachchan are household names in Russia and many post-Soviet countries.
– Hindi film songs are popular in the region, contributing to a shared cultural memory.
Shared Vision of a Multipolar World Order:
– India and Russia both advocate for a multipolar world order, emphasizing the coexistence of multiple powers in the international system.
– Their vision includes collective security, regionalism, negotiated conflict resolutions, independent foreign policies, and strengthening international organizations like the UN.
Bilateral Agreements and Strategic Partnership:
– More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia, including the Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001.
– India benefits from the relationship with Russia in areas such as Kashmir, energy supplies, counterterrorism efforts, access to Central Asia, and balancing relations with China.
– Russia benefits from India as its second-largest arms market and a source of oil imports during crises.
– Energy cooperation includes partnership and investment in oilfields.
– Russia supports India’s nuclear energy plans and space industry, providing technology like the cryogenic rocket.
– Scientific collaboration between the two countries has also been extensive.
Geopolitical Significance:
– India’s partnership with Russia has geopolitical significance, helping India maintain regional stability and access to essential resources.