Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
The Age of Social Change
The Age of Social ChangeAfter the French Revolution, people started discussing how society could be changed.
Earlier, society was divided into estates and orders, controlled by the aristocracy and church.
In India, thinkers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio also discussed these ideas.
People had different opinions on change. Some wanted gradual change; others wanted a complete transformation.
Three main political groups emerged: Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives.
Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives
Liberals wanted religious tolerance and protection of individual rights.
They supported an elected parliamentary government and an independent judiciary.
Liberals opposed universal adult franchise. They wanted voting rights only for men with property and were against women’s suffrage.
Radicals wanted a government based on the majority population.
They supported women’s suffrage and opposed the power of landowners and rich factory owners.
Radicals disliked the concentration of property, though they accepted private property.
Conservatives initially opposed change but later accepted slow and respectful change.
Industrial Society and Social Change
The Industrial Revolution led to growth of cities and factories.
Working conditions were harsh – long hours, low wages, and frequent unemployment.
Liberals and radicals demanded reforms like education, healthcare, and better working conditions.
They believed in individual effort and a free economy without aristocratic privilege.
Across Europe, nationalists, liberals, and radicals supported revolutions to end monarchies and build nations.
Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, inspired many revolutionaries across Europe and also influenced Indian thinkers.
Understanding Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Socialists were against private property and wanted collective ownership for the benefit of all.
They believed that property should be controlled by society as a whole, not individuals.
Robert Owen set up a cooperative community in New Harmony (USA).
Louis Blanc wanted the government to support cooperatives instead of capitalist businesses.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels said that industrial society was capitalist and workers were exploited.
Marx believed that workers must overthrow capitalism and create a communist society where all property is socially controlled.
Support for Socialism
By the 1870s, socialist ideas had spread across Europe.
Socialists formed an international group called the Second International to coordinate their efforts.
Workers in countries like England and Germany formed associations to demand better wages, shorter work hours, and the right to vote.
In Germany, these workers supported the Social Democratic Party (SPD).
In Britain, the Labour Party was formed in 1905, and in France, the Socialist Party gained popularity.
Although socialist parties didn’t form governments before 1914, their ideas influenced laws and reforms in many European countries.
The Russian Empire in 1914
Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, who had absolute power over a vast empire.
The Russian empire included areas like Finland, Poland, Ukraine, and Central Asia.
The official religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, but there were also Muslims, Catholics, Protestants, and Buddhists.
Economy and Society in Russia
Around 85% of Russians were agriculturists—much higher than in western Europe.
Industry existed in some cities like St Petersburg and Moscow, mostly owned by private industrialists.
Working conditions were harsh: long hours, low wages, and unsafe housing.
Women formed 31% of the factory workforce but were paid less than men.
In the countryside, land was owned by the nobility, crown, and church. Peasants wanted land redistribution.
Peasants sometimes refused to pay rent and attacked landlords.
Socialism in Russia
All political parties were illegal before 1914.
The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was formed in 1898, influenced by Marxist ideas.
Some socialists formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party, which wanted land for peasants.
Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, believed the party should include only disciplined revolutionaries.
The Mensheviks wanted a broad-based party open to all workers.
The 1905 Revolution
Russia was an autocracy. There was no elected parliament.
In 1904–05, prices rose and real wages fell by 20%.
Father Gapon led a peaceful march of workers to the Winter Palace in St Petersburg.
The Tsar’s forces fired on them, killing hundreds. This event is called Bloody Sunday.
Strikes and protests followed all over Russia. The Tsar was forced to create a Duma (Parliament).
But he soon dissolved the Dumas and changed laws to ensure control.
Russia and the First World War
In 1914, Russia joined Britain and France in the First World War.
The war caused huge losses and shortages of food and fuel.
By 1917, over 7 million soldiers had died or been wounded.
The war weakened the Tsar’s authority and led to rising discontent.
The February Revolution – 1917
In Petrograd, workers faced extreme food shortages and cold weather.
On 22 February, a factory lockout led to strikes. Women workers played a major role.
Demonstrations spread. On 25 February, the Duma was suspended.
Soldiers joined the workers, and together they formed the Petrograd Soviet.
On 2 March, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. A Provisional Government was formed.
After February – The April Theses
Vladimir Lenin returned in April 1917 and announced his April Theses:
- End the war
- Land to the peasants
- Banks to be nationalised
He wanted Soviets (workers’ councils) to take power and rename the party as the Communist Party.
The October Revolution—1917
Lenin feared the Provisional Government would become a dictatorship.
On 24 October, Bolsheviks began an armed uprising.
They took over government buildings and arrested ministers.
The Winter Palace was shelled by the ship Aurora.
By December, the Bolsheviks controlled Moscow and Petrograd.
Changes After October
Private property was abolished. Banks and industries were nationalised.
Land was declared social property, and peasants seized land from the nobility.
The Bolshevik Party became the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks).
In 1918, they made peace with Germany through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Russia became a one-party state.
The Civil War (1918–20)
The Reds (Bolsheviks) were opposed by Whites (pro-Tsarists) and Greens (Socialist Revolutionaries).
The Whites were supported by foreign powers like Britain, France, and Japan.
Peasants supported the Reds because the Whites wanted to take back land.
By 1920, the Bolsheviks had won the civil war.
Formation of the USSR
In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed.
Some nationalities were given autonomy, but policies were still controlled by the central government.
Making a Socialist Society
The government introduced centralised planning through Five-Year Plans (from 1927).
The state fixed targets and prices to promote industrial growth.
New factory cities were built, and education and healthcare were improved.
But working conditions were still harsh, and shortages were common.
Stalinism and Collectivisation
By 1927–28, grain shortages occurred. Stalin blamed kulaks (rich peasants) for hoarding grain.
He started forced collectivisation to create large state-controlled farms (kolkhoz).
Many peasants resisted collectivisation by destroying crops and cattle.
Millions were deported or punished, and the famine of 1930–1933 killed over 4 million people.
Global Influence of the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution inspired people across the world, including Indians.
Communist parties were formed in many countries.
M.N. Roy, an Indian revolutionary, helped spread socialism in Asia.
Indian leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore visited Soviet Russia and wrote about it.
Though the USSR became powerful, it was criticized for its lack of freedom and harsh rule.